The Asian region, which covers some 46 countries, has been organized for the purpose of this WWES study into five sub-regions, namely: Central, East, South East, South, and West Asia.  The following summary covers South East Asia.

1.         Introduction to the South East Sub-region

Asia’s South East sub-region covers eleven countries: Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Timor-Leste, and Vietnam. The South East Asian sub-region along with East and South Asia, now accounts for a major share of world economic output and economic growth. South East Asia’s eleven countries are generally divided into “mainland” and “island” zones. The mainland (Myanmar [Burma], Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam) is actually an extension of the Asian continent.  Island or maritime Southeast Asia includes Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, the Philippines, Brunei, and the new nation of East Timor or Timor Leste (formerly part of Indonesia) (Asia Society 2012).

2.         Specific countries

Brunei Darussalam. Agricultural extension in Brunei Darussalam is public sector dominant, with extension and advisory services provided mainly through the Department of Agriculture and Agrifood (DOA) of the Ministry of Industry and Primary Resources (MIPR). The MIPR is organized into five Departments: DOA, Department of Fisheries, Department of Forestry, Brunei Industrial Development Authority (BINA), and the department of Tourism. A specific unit with the mandate to provide extension and advisory services could not be identified by WWES (2011). However, the Agribusiness Development Division does list the provision of ‘Agribusiness Advisory’ services as one of its main functions.

The agricultural extension system in Brunei Darussalam is characterized by an integrated approach where the original Training & Visit (T&V) methodology of the system is now linked to specific commodity research (e.g. rice, vegetables, fruits, field crops). At the district level, a supervisor for each commodity heads all aspects of development and directs extension workers to implement the farmers’ development programs (Anjah and Rahman 2004).

Brunei Darussalam is implementing a Medium Term Strategic Plan (2008-2013) to improve food security by increasing the level of self-sufficiency in the production of rice, tropical fruits and vegetables, and other food commodities (DOA Brunei Darussalam 2011). The country imports 60% of its food requirements and 75% is imported from member countries of the Association of Southeast Nations (ASEAN) (DOA Brunei Darussalam 2011). The Department of Agriculture and Agrifood is the leading agency for the Plan, but works in cooperation and with the support from other relevant agencies, the private sector, and farmers to reach the set self-sufficiency targets. Private sector involvement has played a key role in Brunei Darussalam’s efforts to diversify its economy from total dependence on oil and Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) and its role has been steadily increasing (Anjah and Rahman 2004). Through the MIPR, the Government, has been encouraging Small and Medium Enterprises (SME) as a base for economic growth (Anjah and Rahman 2004).

The Entrepreneurial Development Center of the MIPR, formerly known as the Sinaut Agricultural Training Center (BNDA), is in charge of facilitating the growth and development of SME in the country. In 2006, the BNDA’s Diploma in Agriculture program was transferred to the Ministry of Education and the center was established under the administration of the MIPR. Among its various functions, the Center provides and implements technology transfer and product development programs targeted at local entrepreneurs to enable them to adopt the latest technologies or locally ‘modified matured technologies’ (MIPR Brunei Darussalam 2010).

In 2009, the MIPR and the Department of Agriculture of the Republic of the Philippines signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) on Agricultural Cooperation to foster sector development and enhance agricultural trade and investment. Bilateral cooperation between the two countries led to the establishment of Rice Farmer Field Schools (RFFS) in 2010, as an extension strategy to disseminating agricultural technology to farmers (DOA Brunei Darussalam 2010). The MIPR has also signed a MoU with the People’s Republic of China and with Singapore to enhance cooperation in various fields, including agriculture, fisheries, and conservation biology.

The McFARM, a subsidiary of the Mitsubishi Corporation, has been involved in the provision of agricultural extension in the country since its inception in 1979. In June 2009, operation of the farm was handed-over to the Department of Agriculture, which began exploring new collaborative schemes and initiatives with the Mitsubishi Corporation (DOA Brunei Darussalam 2010). According to the DOA, the Mitsubishi Corporation is planning a new program to provide local farmers with the latest scientific technology and agricultural practices.

Cambodia.  The Royal Government of Cambodia (RGC) has a pluralistic agricultural extension system. The public and private sectors, civil society organizations, NGOs, and donor programs all provide extension services. Extension services for smallholder farmers are minimal in RGC. Duplication of agricultural services provided by the government, donors and NGOs is common in villages, and services do not reach all households in need of advice (Sothath and Sophal 2010, Qamar 2012a). A large number of smallholders are organized in associations and groups around common interests such as the production of a given agricultural crop or to pool their resources together in order to facilitate access to credit and farm inputs (Qamar 2012a).

The Department of Agricultural Extension (DAE) of the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF) developed the national extension guidelines, with assistance from Australia. These guidelines use a farming systems development approach, which requires having small multi-skilled agricultural teams in district offices. The MAFF oversees various technical departments and public enterprises, including the DAE under the General Directorate of Agriculture, the Royal University of Agriculture, other universities and agricultural colleges, and research institutions around the country. All these institutions and public enterprises provide some level of extension services. Given the limited coverage of extension services offered by private and civil society organizations, MAFF has made substantial efforts over the years to strengthen and expand public agricultural extension services (Qamar 2012a).

The majority of public sector agricultural personnel in Cambodia work at the provincial level, with a small percentage of them assigned to district Offices of Agriculture. These district offices have no annual budget to deliver agricultural services to farmers, but work as counterparts on donor and NGO projects. The public extension comprises 1,244 staff members and is managed by a team of 58 senior staff according to the MEAS report (2011). Women account for 21% of senior management staff. There are 66 subject matter specialists (26% female) and 1,120 field level extension workers. This last group constitutes the bulk of staff (90%).

Private sector provision of extension and advisory services is noticeable in the areas of input supply to farmers, large-scale collectors (e.g. animal feed raw materials), and contract farming companies.  Private sector firms contract to provide technical advice to farmer associations and cooperatives (Qamar 2012a). Angkor Kasekam Roonroeung Co Ltd (AKR), a private Cambodian firm established in 1999, has the largest contract rice farming operation in Cambodia. AKR exports non-certified organic Neang Malis (an aromatic Cambodian rice variety introduced by AKR) to the international market (Cai et al. 2008).

NGOs and donor project interventions focus on agricultural production and agribusiness supply chain development. Interventions are implemented mostly at the production level near the farmer. Recent efforts include improving the supply of agricultural inputs such as seeds, fertilizers, and pesticides. Some of the NGOs and donor projects include the Flemish Association for Development Cooperation and Technical Assistance (VVOB), the Adventist Development and Relief Agency (ADRA), the Cambodian Center for Study and Development in Agriculture (CEDAC), the International Development Enterprises (IDE Cambodia), the Agricultural Quality Improvement Project (AQIP), as well as different donor-funded projects: the ongoing International Fund for Agriculture Development’s (IFAD) Agricultural Productivity Improvement Project, the Asian Development Bank’s Agricultural Sector Development Project, the Australian Agency for International Development’s (AusAID) Cambodia-Australia Agricultural Extension Project (CAAEP), and the AusAID Cambodia Agriculture Research and Development Institute – Assistance Project (CARDI-AP).

The lack of continuing education opportunities could constitute a drawback to the performance of agricultural extension agents (Qamar 2012a). The Royal University of Agriculture and the Moharussey Vedic University provide formal agricultural training to MAFF staff, agricultural extension agents, other organizations involved, as well as farmers. These universities provide a wide range of short training courses; current personnel taking on extension services are primarily trained to work as general agricultural practitioners. The training departments of the Ministry of Agriculture and NGOs generally run ad hoc in-service training programs that do not prepare extension staff adequately to deal with complex agricultural problems (Qamar 2012a).

Indonesia.  Indonesia has a pluralistic agricultural extension system. In 2006, Indonesia established law No 16/2006 on Agriculture, Fishery and Forestry Extension System that guides the implementation of agricultural extension services by the Government and Local Governments. The purpose of the law is farmer empowerment and capacity building by non-formal education to encourage farmers to develop agribusinesses and increase their prosperity. Financing of extension services is a shared responsibility between the central and local governments, farmers and private funding. However, most provinces and districts have a budget for extension activities, which cover the operational costs for all field extension staff (WWES 2011).

The National Center for Agricultural Development, renamed in 2010 as the National Center for Agricultural Extension Development, has primary responsibility for planning at the national level. The National Center is part of the Ministry of Agriculture’s Agency of Agricultural Extension and Human Resources Development and is headquartered in Jakarta. The National Center maintains strong linkages with district level government agencies and agricultural research organizations. The linkages with NGOs involved in extension, and banks or micro-credit institutions are moderate. The linkages with agricultural universities, the private sector input supply firms and exporters and consumer organizations are reportedly rather weak (WWES 2011).

At the national level, public extension is managed by 69 senior staff, of which 38% are women. There are 28 subject matter specialists, two-thirds of which have graduate degrees and 44% of which are female, and they provide backstopping support to the field staff.  In 2009, there were some 53,944 field extension workers: staff on permanent contracts (27,922, 26% female) and workers on three-year contracts (24,551, 18% female). Pre-service training is available through Agricultural Universities and Schools of Agriculture. The National Center emphasizes in-service training, which was made available to 4,000 staff (8% of all staff) for an average duration of two weeks.  There are nine in-service training centers that have a total of 830 in-service training staff with a B.Sc. degree, 213 with a Master degree and 27 with a doctoral degree. From 2005 to 2010, approximately 17,000 workshop and training materials were published and about 75,000 copies of agricultural information bulletins, brochures, and fact sheets. Audio-visual education material for use by extension staff is provided. Extension broadcasts a monthly TV program as well as twice monthly radio programs (WWES 2011).

The primary client groups for public sector extension services are small/medium-scale commercial farmers (25% of time and effort) and small-scale subsistence farmers (20%). About 15% of time is devoted to landless farmers. Large commercial farmers, as well as farmers growing cacao, rubber, or horticultural products are considered important, but only about 5% of time is devoted to each. There are programs geared at rural youth and those that advise rural women on nutrition, health, and hygiene. Extension workers have access to office motorcycles (WWES 2011).

It is estimated that 25% of farmers belong to farmer or producer organizations and that there are almost 318,000 organizations nationwide (WWES Indonesia 2010). These include some 270,817 farmer groups, 15,433 farmer input supply and marketing cooperatives, 1,365 farmer organizations related to commodities (e.g. cacao, coffee, sugar cane), 2,100 producer organizations for high value crops, and 28,304 rural/farmer women organizations. Representatives from these farmer organizations are active in extension advisory boards and committees at all levels, from the sub-district to the national level. About 15% of the representatives are women. These representatives play a prominent role in influencing extension policy and in farmer-to-farmer extension activities, but are also important in helping set extension priorities, specifying extension programs, and assessing extension's performance (WWES 2011).

As for donor initiatives, from 2007 to 2011, the World Bank funded in cooperation with the Indonesian Government the Farmer Empowerment through Agricultural Technology and Information (FEATI) a community empowerment program which was conducted in 18 provinces, 68 districts and 3080 villages. The FEATI Project included an Agricultural Revitalization in Extension component, which provided grants to finance activities for the implementation of farmer managed extension activities.

The private, non-profit development organization, ACDI/VOCA, is the implementing agency of the Sustainable CoCoa Enterprise Solutions for Smallholders (SUCCESS) Alliance. The mission of SUCCESS is to improve the livelihoods of smallholder farmers by promoting economically, environmentally, socially and culturally sustainable cocoa production and marketing. The Alliance is active in the Indonesia, as well as in the Philippines and Vietnam. 

Lao People’s Democratic Republic. The LAO People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR) has a pluralistic extension system. Extension services are provided by the public and private sectors, as well as international NGOs that operate through donor-funded projects. The Lao Extension Approach, developed with assistance from the Swiss-funded Laos Extension for Agriculture Project (LEAP), guides the country’s extension system and attempts to fulfill the following principles: decentralized, pluralistic, participatory, needs-based, integrated, gender-sensitive, group-based, self-motivated, and sustainable (Qamar 2012b). In 2009, the total numbers of extension staff in all sectors (i.e. public, non-profit/NGOs, and other) of the country was 962: 241 (22% female) in agriculture, 205 (14% female) in forestry, 216 (8% female) in fishery, and 300 (20% female) in rural development (Qamar 2012b). The government is planning to invest approximately US$ 29 million by 2015 in the development of extension and relevant infrastructure (Qamar 2012b). Plans include improvement of agricultural training centers, construction of a seed storage facility, training of farmers, improvement of existing 216 extension centers, as well as increasing the number of centers to 500.

The Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (MAF) provides extension services through its National Agricultural and Forestry Extension Service (NAFES), its National Agriculture and Forestry Research Institute (NAFRI), and its five agricultural colleges. The task for the MAF is to advance a pluralistic, participatory extension system, to ensure effective coordination between its research and extension services, and to decentralize the existing public sector extension services. Universities such as the National University of Laos and the Royal University of Agriculture also provide extension services. The University of Laos has a Department of Agriculture, and the Royal University of Agriculture has a Division of Research and Extension and provides programs in ‘agri-education for extension.’ In 2009, there was a total of 752 extension staff in the public sector: 201 in agriculture, 170 in forestry, 186 in fishery, and 195 in rural development (Qamar 2012b)

MAF’s NAFES department operates a comprehensive, unified agricultural extension service in the country since 2001 (Qamar 2012b). NAFES has offices located in all 18 provinces and 141 districts of the country: Provincial Agricultural and Forestry Extension Services (PAFES) offices and District Agricultural and Forestry Extension Offices (DAFO). PAFES staff subject-matter specialists and DAFO staff extension generalists referred to as Farming Systems Extension Workers (APO 2006, Qamar 2012b). NAFRI undertakes extension-related activities and is Lao PDR’s main source of technology innovation. NAFRI also maintains the Lao Agriculture Database, which contains agricultural and natural resources information and includes, among other material, extension information. 

In 2005, NAFES and NAFRI organized a joint workshop on Research and Extension linkages was attended by 130 participants that included heads of division within NAFES, NAFRI, and other MAF departments; heads of all 18 PAFES and Provincial Agriculture and Forestry Extension Centers; and representatives of various projects, donors, and NGOs (Laolink 2008). The workshop issued a series of recommendations to both consolidate extension in Lao PDR and create a joint working group on Agricultural Information Management (AIM). The workshop stressed various extension needs including involvement of private enterprises and the use of the training of trainers approach for human resource development.

Non-public institutions providing extension services include joint venture companies, the informally private Village Extension System (VES), international NGOs, as well as farmers-based organizations and cooperatives. While the Lao Agricultural Master Plan 2011 to 2015 mentions ‘embedded agricultural extension services’ in regards to cooperation with the private sector, no private company as such is involved in extension activities (Qamar 2012b). However, contract farming has become popular among farmers in recent years and several joint venture companies (e.g. Lao Arrowny Corporation and Lao Agro Industry Company) have been contracting thousands of farmers for growing various crops (Qamar 2012b). These venture companies provide contracted farmers technical advice on how to raise good quality crops.

The VES compensates for the absence of government extension staff at the village level (there are some 11,000 villages in Laos PDR).  The VES involves a cycle of activities that start with Training Needs Assessment and ends with farmers agreeing on the knowledge and skills they want to acquire during learning sessions, as well as on which households will participate in these sessions (Lao PDR 2005). Farmers select Village Extension Workers (VEW) from within the farmer community and pay them in cash, kind, or labor, according to mutually agreed terms. The VEW receive technical support (i.e. technical training, provision of information, extension and training materials) from the government’s district extension staff. The VEW are in charge of organizing farmers into ‘production groups’ that center not on production per se, but on gaining knowledge through ‘learning projects’ that could be applied towards enhancing production. This focus follows the idea that agricultural extension in Lao PDR is an educational process, not a production process” (Lao PDR 2005:56). The number of farmers’ groups so far has reached 1,000 (Qamar 2012b).

There are no local NGOs in Lao PDR, but several international NGOs provide extension services in the country. A list of these can be accessed through the Internet Directory of Non-Government Organizations (NGOs) in the Lao PDR (http://www.directoryofngos.org), prepared by the government. The on-line directory provides information on 72 organizations and 249 projects. Relatively active NGOs that have several projects in or related to agriculture, forestry, fisheries, and community development include: CARE International, Health Poverty Action, International Relief and Development, Japan International Volunteer Center, Norwegian Church Aid, SNV Netherlands Development Organization, Village Focus International, World Education, and World Vision.

With regard to ICT in the area of rural and agricultural development, Lao PDR is experimenting with telecenters, which according to the Asian Productivity Association, have already exhibited benefits in several West European countries (Sharma 2006).  The International Development Research Center funded Lao PDR’s first telecenter project: E-Way. The E-Way project was implemented by the National Authority for Science and Technology, but was not sustainable due to several reasons including high cost of Internet connection, low participation from local community, and low-income generation (Phissamay 2009). In 2006, the Government of India funded a second project, the Rural Telecenters Project, which established 10 telecenters in seven provinces of Laos PDR, including one at the Ministry of Agriculture (Phissamay 2009). The telecenters under this project provide agricultural, community project and other types of information and support the distribution of local products. Also in 2006, the government of Laos PDR launched the E-Government Project, which aims to make the delivery of public services by government institutions more efficient and effective, and in particular more accessible to citizens in rural areas (Phissamay 2009). Components of the e-Government project include online archives, documents, maps, registration process, and learning, as well as teleconferencing.

Malaysia. The agricultural extension system in Malaysia is public sector driven. The Department of Agriculture Malaysia (DOA) under the Ministry of Agri-based Industry is the leading agency providing extension services for food production (Mohd Samsudin 2008). The Department of Fisheries and Department of Veterinary Services also reside in the Ministry and also undertake extension-related activities. In 2009, the DOA’s extension division for Peninsular Malaysia reported some 1,216 extension-staff for food crops production (excluding rubber and oil palm) (WWES 2011). The agricultural extension program has traditionally targeted rural farmers, but has recently expanded its services to include anyone involved in agricultural activities, either directly or indirectly. Clientele categorization is based on annual income and differentiates between the following groups: large-scale agro-entrepreneur, medium-scale agro-entrepreneur, small-scale agro-entrepreneur, micro agro-entrepreneur (includes farmers), as well as a last category that includes hobby/potential farmers, NGOs, department and agencies (Mohd Samsudin 2008).

There is a current revived interest in the agricultural sector in Malaysia. The country’s Ninth Malaysia Plan (2006-2010) put forward the idea of New Agriculture, which according to Mohd Samsudin (2008:2), involves ‘large-scale commercial farming, wider application of modern technology, production of high quality and value-added products, advancement of biotechnology, increased convergence with information and communications technology and the participation of entrepreneurial farmers and skilled workforce.’ DOA’s extension goals align with the goals for New Agriculture and consist of (1) increasing farm productivity through the transfer of technology and research findings, (2) promoting new technology and active participation among farmers, and (3) promoting and developing specific crops (Mohd Samsudin 2008).

The DOA’s online portal (http://www.doa.gov.my/) refers to its Extension, Advisory and Consultancy service as Doktor Pokok or ‘Tree Doctor’ Development Clinic. According to DOA, Tree Doctor refers to the officers that provide consultancy services including technical expertise and agricultural development. The Development Clinic refers to both the extension program and a place where extension services are provided (e.g. regional agricultural offices, local DOA centers, mobile counters, DOA headquarters). The DOA lists various field of expertise for its Tree Doctors, including consultancy on Good Agriculture Practice (GAP), agricultural projects feasibility study, agriculture investment and consultation, diagnosis of plant problems, marketing of agricultural produce, and agro-based industry production technology. As such, extension activities center on the provision of consultation/guidance to participants based on all the different extension agent expertise. Extension activities also consist of resolving agricultural technical and development issues, providing information or elaborating on DOA or other governmental programs, acting as a bridge between participants and DOA or other agency personnel, and disseminating latest agricultural information. In 2009, the DOA reported the number of its subject matter specialists: 17 for major cereal, root and tuber crops; 36 for horticultural crops; 12 for farm management; 46 for land soil, water or forestry management, 10 for organic agriculture, 7 specialized in rural development, 19 dedicated to organizing famers’/women’s groups, and 43 other (e.g. pesticides) (WWES 2011).

DOA’s extension in food crops production consists of six different types of extension: crop production, pesticide, diagnostic, harvesting, food processing and marketing (Mohd Samsudin 2008). GAP is the standard guideline for technology transfer activities in these types of extension. Examples of GAP include good land leveling in paddy planting, the use of a right amount of lime at the right time to reduce soil acidity in paddy fields, and the use of organic fertilizers and manures. Farmers that adopt GAP are eligible to become certified through the Malaysian Farm Accreditation Scheme (SALM) and become eligible for other branding of their agricultural products. Brands include Malaysia’s Best for highest safety and quality standards issued by the Federal Agricultural Marketing Authority and DOA’s Malaysian Organic Scheme (SOM) Standard for organically cultivated crops (Mohd Samsudin 2008).

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is taught to farmers as part of DOA’s pesticide extension program. In diagnostic extension, the doktor pokok diagnoses plant symptoms of pest and disease attack and other plant problems through DOA’s district extension clinics (Mohd Samsudin 2008). Advisory services are provided at pre-harvest, harvest, and post-harvest activities through harvesting extension. Another extension activity is that of promoting added value to a product in food processing extension. Marketing extension encourages farmer’s to get involved in contract farming so as to ensure their products are sold at fair prices and that they receive farm profits that reflect their hard work (Mohd Samsudin 2008). In 2009, DOA reported educational and advisory service activities as the extension activity field extension agents dedicate most of their time to (70%).

For the paddy industry, Shaffril et al. (2010) underscore the importance for agriculture extension officers to cultivate competency in communication. Comparing paddy with other agriculture sources, they state that the competency of the agricultural extension officers first needs to be enhanced to intensify paddy as the main agriculture sector in Malaysia. In addition they argue that ‘the commercialization of agricultural activities, modern farming practices, post-harvest handling, processing and marketing are main focuses that need to be intensified to boost this industry’ (Shaffril et al. 2010:451, 452).

Myanmar.  As with Malaysia’s agricultural extension system, Myanmar’s extension system is public sector driven. The role of the private sector, NGOs and universities is limited. An objective of extension programs in Myanmar is to collect and provide farmers with the best existing Knowledge, Information, and Technology (KIT) on agriculture, agribusiness, and farm management. However, extension programs place a strong emphasis on improved technology to enhance production and very little attention is given to empowering farmers (e.g. develop farmers’ skills, knowledge and attitude) (Qamar 2012c).

The Myanmar Agricultural Service (MAS) of the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation is the responsible governmental entity for providing agricultural extension services in the country. The MAS houses the Agricultural Extension Division (AED) with some 4,534 extension staff in 2009 (WWES 2011). The Department of Fisheries of the Ministry of Livestock and fisheries also provides extension services. A total number of public extension staff in the country is given by an Investment Assessment Project survey conducted in 2009 by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations. According to this survey, the number of public extension staff in agriculture, forestry, fishery and rural development is 10,947, with 5,631 extension staff in agriculture, including crops and livestock (Qamar 2012c).

At the village level, the AED has a Village Tract Extension Service. Under this service, Village Managers maintain direct contact with farmers and are required to cover a few village tracts/villages with 1,215 to 2,430 hectares of cropland (Cho 2002, Qamar 2012c). There are also Village Tract Managers, which supervise as many as 10 Village Managers. A number of extension approaches are used by the AED to introduce new agricultural techniques: large-scale education camps, Farmer Field Schools (FFS), ten member farmers’ groups for extension contact known as Se Le Su, the Training & Visit system, special high-yielding programs, special crop production zones, block-wise crop production programs, and a farmers’ participatory technology development approach (Qamar 2012c).  Horticulture farms, field crop farms, and crop substituting farms also engage in extension activities related to crop and horticulture production (Cho 2002, Qamar 2012c).

Other public entities providing extension services are the Department of Agricultural Research (DAR), the Seed Division of the MAS, the Yezin Agricultural University (YAU), and the Myanmar Academy of Agriculture, Forestry, Livestock and Fishery Science. The DAR organizes extension activities for agricultural research stations at the state and division level. It has 10 divisions, seven of which are dedicated to specific crops: rice, other cereals, fiber crops, oil crops, food legumes, sugar crops and horticulture (Qamar 2012c).  The Seed Division of the MAS carries out extension activities related to pure seed production and seed multiplication (Cho 2002, Qamar 2012c). The YAU is Myanmar’s only institution of higher learning in agriculture and has as part of its mission to constantly contribute to national agricultural research and extension (YAU 2012). The YAU also has B.Sc., M.Sc. and Ph.D. programs in agricultural sciences. The Myanmar Academy of Agriculture, Forestry, Livestock and Fishery Science (MAAFLF) also offers graduate and post-graduate training, as well as short-term and medium-term training for its staff and young scientists with the objective to promote the effective use of modern technologies in the respective sciences (MAAFLF 2002).

There are several multilateral and bilateral donors, as well as NGOs present in Myanmar; however, involvement of the donor community and NGOs is limited due to the various sanctions that have been imposed by individual countries or development agencies (Qamar 2012c). Some of the donors include the FAO, the World Health Organization, the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), AusAID, and ASEAN. An example of a donor project is the Agricultural Extension Human Resource Development Project, which JICA has been supporting since 2007. The project is being implemented by the MAS and seeks to diversify and strengthen the dissemination of farming techniques, which are being developed based on established farmers’ needs (e.g. seed purity, soil fertility, and plant protection for crops). Almost all NGOs working in Myanmar are international and have Memoranda of Understanding (MOU) or Letters of Agreement with the government (Qamar 2012c). Some NGOs working in the country are ActionAid, the Water Research and Training Center-Myanmar, World Vision, Saetanar, and Population Services International. ActionAid, for example, has a Memorandum of Understanding with the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation and a tri-partite agreement with the Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock. ActionAid is promoting a re-orientation of extension services that help local communities and smallholders reduce their dependency on external inputs and that encourage site-specific, tailor-made sustainable production systems (Curtis 2012).

Private sector involvement in extension activities is limited, but there are some efforts to develop collaborations with private entities. The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) has engaged the Myanmar Rice and Paddy Traders Association and the Pioneer Postharvest Development Group—a recently founded civil society organization—in introducing post-harvest technologies to farmers and farmers’ groups. Together they are currently introducing an improved dryer and air-tight storage, as well as demonstrating combine harvesting (see Key Achievements, IRRI website).

Philippines. The agricultural extension system in the Philippines is public sector driven, but some NGOs and private agri-business companies also play a significant role. The country is divided into 17 administrative regions, which are composed of 79 provinces. Provinces are divided into 117 cities and 1500 municipalities known collectively as Local Government Units (LGU). These LGU are divided into 41,975 villages or barangays. In 2006, LGU were providing extension services in 41,940 barangays, which have about 12 million people working actively in agriculture (Sharma 2006). An estimate of the total number of extension workers in the country is 32,328, distributed as follows: 25,000 (77%) in LGU, 3,390 (10%) in the Department of Agriculture (DA) bureaus and attached agencies, 2,111 (7%) in NGOs, 1,250 (4%) in state colleges and universities, and 577 (2%) in private agribusiness companies (Sharma 2006).

In the public sector, many of the agencies implementing the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP), created based on the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law of 1988, provide agricultural extension services. These CARP-implementing agencies (CIAs) aim to promote social justice and industrialization and include: the Department of Agriculture (DA), the Department of Agrarian Reform (DAR), the National Irrigation Authority (NIA), the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI), and the Bureau of Local Workers (BRW) of the Department of Labor and Employment.

The DA provides extension services that include training, technical and marketing assistance, dispersal activities, provision of pre/post harvest facilities, and construction of Small Water Impounding Projects (DAR 2012). The DAR’s agrarian reform support services include several infrastructure and non-infrastructure extension programs delivered through foreign assisted programs; these include provision of post-harvest facilities, creation of farm-to-market roads, construction of irrigation systems programs, demonstration farms, and training of agrarian reform beneficiaries (ARB) leaders. One of NIA’s major activities includes the organization and strengthening of farmer Irrigators’ Associations. The DTI has a Small and Medium Industrial Technology Transfer Development Program that provides ARB with a package of support services that includes trainings and seminars; assistance for the establishment of micro, small and medium enterprises; and market development assistance. The BRW targets particularly the plantation workers of commercial farms and assists them in developing their competencies in cooperative development, farm management, and other socio-economic activities (DAR 2012).

With the enactment of the Local Government Code of 1991, the DA’s functions were devolved to LGU and it ceased to be a CIA; however, it continues to actively participate in CARP-related policies and issues at the national level. The DA has Regional Field Units in every region and several bureaus, attached agencies and corporations. Of these, five bureaus, six commodity attached agencies and two Research and Development Institutes (i.e. the Philippine Rice Research Institute and Philippine Carabao Center) have strong agricultural extension mandate (Sharma 2006). The Agricultural Training Institute (ATI) bureau is considered the extension and training arm of the DA. The DA also lists the following entities for technology transfer, information dissemination, training, and technical and other agricultural assistance: Bureau of Plant Industry (BPI), Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, Bureau of Agricultural Statistics, Sugar Regulatory Administration, Bureau of Soils and Water Management, Philippine Coconut Authority (PCA), Livestock Development Council, and the Bureau of Agricultural Research (BAR).

DA’s ATI has been providing extension services since 1987 and has 16 centers spread across the country, with some 303 extension staff in 2009 (WWES 2011).  The ATI trains agricultural extension workers and their clientele, and is the leading agency for the provision of e-Extension or ICT-based extension services. The e-Extension program aims to provide an alternative to the traditional extension system of the agriculture, fisheries and natural resources sectors, by integrating an ICT-based extension delivery system. Its mission focuses on creating an electronic and interactive bridge where farmers, fishers and other stakeholders meet and transact to enhance productivity, profitability and global competitiveness.

ATI’s e-Extension program is a network of the following institutions: BAR, BPI, National Dairy Authority, PCA, Philippine Carabao Center, and Philippine Sino-Center for Agricultural Technologies. The program has three main components: e-Learning, e-Farming, and e-Trading. Under e-Learning government agencies from the DA and the Department of Science and Technology partner to offer online certificate courses, as well as radio School-on-Air and University-on-Air programs.  The e-Farming program delivers farm and business advisory services, primarily technical assistance, to farmers and agricultural extension agents via text and voice (using a pre-defined toll-free number), as well as through chat, email, and online forums.  The e-Trading program is a component under development that will enable online trading and provide market information.

Various multilateral and bilateral donors, as well as NGOs provide development services in the Philippines. Donors include the FAO, JICA, AusAID, and ASEAN. AusAID considers itself the largest bilateral grant aid donor to the country. It’s key achievements for 2011 included providing project advice and materials through trained local extension officers to help farmers improve their practices, and organizing smallholder farmers into clusters to help them access higher value markets (AusAID 2012). AusAID also provided initial support to the Philippines Extension Network (PEN) through the initiative of the AusAsia-Pacific Extension Network (Cardenas 2010). The PEN is a cadre of professionals in pursuit of extension as science and its practice and influences the direction of Philippine Extension (WWES 2011). In 2010 the PEN  had 25,117 members from various public and private organizations (Cardenas 2010).

In 2002, JICA established the Technical Cooperation for Grassroots Projects scheme to support projects formulated by Japanese NGOs, local NGOs, local governments and universities. Under this scheme local NGOs can act as counterparts of Japanese NGOs or as beneficiaries of a project. Current support-type and counterpart-type projects that include extension activities are the ‘Project for Income Generation through Development and Management of Agroforestry Farm’ implemented by the Kansho Volunteers Association, the ‘Safe Vegetable Promotion Project’ implemented by the Japan Agricultural Exchange Council, and the ‘Food Security based on Permaculture Development Model for Indigenous Mangyan in the Amnay Area’ implemented by the 21^st Century Association (JICA 2011). A list of other NGOs in the country is available from the Philippine Council for NGO Certification database (http://www.pcnc.com.ph/ngo-list.php).

As is the case in Indonesia and Vietnam, ACDI/VOCA’s SUCCESS Alliance is also active in the Philippines. In 2009, ACDI/VOCA launched the CoCoPal Program, a $5.4 million project, funded by USDA, which aims to increase the incomes and food security of 25,000 smallholder farmers in select Mindanao provinces. The CoCoPal project—named after cocoa, coconuts and palayamanan (or “rice wealth”)—will harness local value chains to increase farmers’ opportunities. In April 2011, the CoCoPal program officially enrolled 4,763 in FFS and conducted 181 FFS sessions in the Philippines (ACDI/VOCA 2012).

Private agri-business companies, state colleges and universities are also involved in agricultural extension activities. In 2012, the Philippine-based AgriNurture, a local producer of fruits and vegetables, formally opened a demonstration farm—the Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Science—with co-funding from the Chinese government (Malaya 2012). The demonstration farm will be run by AgriNurture and provide training to ARB sent over by the DAR, the DA, and the Department of Environment and Natural Resources. AgriNurture will conduct training with help from Chinese universities and local state universities and colleges (Malaya 2012). Furthermore, AgriNurture is considering implementing a vegetable contract-growing program with assistance from the University of the Philippines in Los Baños and the Pampanga Agricultural College (Malaya 2012). The program would provide ARB with training and loans for farm inputs, as well as buy crops from them. The Thailand-based company, Charoen Pokphand Foods (CPF) has a shrimp and fish demonstration farm, as well as a fish hatchery in the country.